By JONATHAN RAPER
This article makes a speciality of the ways that GIS will be made multi-dimensional, in accordance with modelling barriers of present two-dimensional GIS. It indicates extending GIS to include the 3rd measurement, 3D GIS, and spatio-temporal GIS.
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Sperber and Wilson (1986) argued that the message-passing model of communication based on the semiotics of Saussure (1916) and Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) theory of communication has been unsuccessful and should be replaced by models based on inference. However, inferential models of language communication require contexts to convey meaning: hence a speaker expects a hearer to have the context necessary to recover meaning. In a model based on Grice (1957), Sperber and Wilson (1986) argue that meaning is conveyed: a) by the intention of a speaker to produce an effect in an audience; b) by the audience’s recognition of the speakers intention; and c) when the audience’s recognition is at least partly caused by the speakers intention.
Pinker (1994) argues that the fundamental reason to reject Whorf s hypotheses is that the RTM has shown that there is a universal language of thought called ‘mentalese’ (see below). Research in linguistics has been influential in developing more sophisticated ontological models. Several quite distinct linguistic theories such as Jackendoff’s ‘conceptual structures’, Lakoff’s ‘image schemas’ and ‘basic level categories’ and Winograd and Flores’ ‘language distinctions’ suggest that ontologies are generated by cognition and language rather than received from the world.
Causality can be seen as a logical, linguistic or physical relation; according to Hume a physical relation involved ‘constant conjunction’. A causal relation of this kind requires that cause comes before effect, that the cause is spatio-temporally close to the effect and that the cause is always followed by the effect. Salmon (1998) characterised causality as a process that exhibits a conserved quantity such as momentum, energy or a charge, which has a four-dimensional spatio-temporal projection (hence objects are causal processes).