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Extra resources for International encyclopedia of the social sciences volume 15
Sample text
Continuous combination of these two approaches provided a base for the development of scientific sociological thought and theory. The very formulation of propositions about social order has, of course, always necessitated the elaboration of what may be called the phenomenology of the basic components of social order. The latter include the orientations and activities of individuals; the characteristics and composition of groups, collectivities, institutional spheres, and major cultural objects; and the various environmental factors impinging on social life.
A special type of closed-system approach can be found in those authors who explain the variety and change of types of social order in terms of certain inherent global tendencies, mostly of a historical nature, which are seen as both autonomous and inevitable. It is thus that laws of social dynamics have been formulated in terms of general 28 SOCIOLOGY: Development of Sociological Thought evolutionary theory (Comte, Spencer, and Hobhouse), Hegelian dialectic as applied to economic institutions (Marx), or certain immanent characteristics of culture and of the human spirit (Croce).
In other words, the open-system approach conceived of the elements of social order and their interrelations as variables rather than known quantities. Thus the way was opened to a far greater flexibility in empirical generalization, as well as to the possibility of bridging the gap between historical generalization, on the one hand, and the irreducible uniqueness of specific historical events, on the other. The breakdown of closed-system theories Progress from the discrete to the closed-system approach and from that to the open-system approach was not only a natural outcome of the internal dialectics of the various schools of contemplative sociological thought.